In this article we will discuss all about- How could George Washington Carver’s discoveries help people on both a local and a global level? Also we will focus on George Washington rule and reformation in details. So let’s drive on it.
Federal rule in America
After the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, America gained independence through the first Treaty of Versailles in 1783. Soon after the Declaration of Independence, America formed a confederation of 13 colonies and in 1781, the states began federal rule in America with their administrative process by ratifying the Articles of Confederation.
However, the Articles of Confederation failed to provide unity among the states and regulate foreign relations. As a result, a conference was convened in Philadelphia in 1787 to amend the Articles of Confederation. But instead of reforming the Constitution, the leaders drafted a new Constitution for America.
A new American Constitution was enacted in 1789 based on many complaints and compromises. According to this constitution, in April 1789, the old Congress arranged for the election of the President through the Electoral College. George Washington of Virginia was elected the first president of America and John Adams of Massachusetts was elected vice president. The rule of these two people from 1789 to 1801 is called ‘Federal rule in America’ or ‘Federalist era’.
George Washington (1789-1797) and his regime:
George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, in Westmoreland County, Virginia to a farming family. He was the chief commander of the American War of Independence. He was also the President of the Philadelphia Convention and an important member of the American Constitution Drafting Committee. Before this, he also served as an officer in the British Army.
After assuming office as president, Washington worked hard to build a new regime. He served as president for two terms from 30 April 1789 to 4 March 1797 for a total of eight years. His role was crucial in putting the war-torn America on a strong economic and administrative footing. He achieved special success in foreign affairs through successful diplomacy. George Washington’s inflation is a burning topic.
George Washington’s Internal Reformations:
George Washington faced several important problems as soon as he came to power. Notable among these are slow and inefficient administration, empty treasury i.e. economic distress, incomplete judicial system, etc. In this situation, he was able to establish war-torn America on a solid foundation through administrative reorganization and dynamic economic programs. His internal measures are as follows:
Administration Restructuring:
George Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson, the US Ambassador to France, as Secretary of State. He also appointed Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. General Henry Knox of Massachusetts was appointed secretary of the War Department in Washington’s first cabinet. He served as Secretary of War from the time of Confederation.
Governor Edmund Randolph of Virginia was appointed Attorney General. Although The US Constitution does not mention the cabinet system, Washington introduced the cabinet system.
He would not make any important decision without the advice of his trusted people, however, before 1907, it did not receive Cabinet approval until it was officially enacted. Evidence of Washington’s prudence in building a strong group of supporters of the new Constitution to establish the newly formed United States and the federal government on a solid foundation with individuals and states of diverse Ideologies was evident.
Because he used his judgment even in the matter of minor appointments of the government. Therefore, the difference between the federal civil service built on the values of efficiency and integrity and the selfish and corrupt conditions prevailing in Europe and other countries was obvious.
Establishment of Supreme Court:
The Constitution of 1787 did not adopt any specific policy regarding the constitution of the Judiciary. As a result, this flaw in the constitution was removed by the Judiciary Act of 24 January 1789. Before the Judiciary Act, Congress had to create and organize the lower federal courts, determine their procedures, and coordinate authority between the federal and the states.
The new law created a Supreme Court with six judges—one being the Chief Justice and five Associate Justices. Besides, thirteen district courts with one federal judge and three mobile courts with two judges of the Supreme Court were set up.
A section of the Act Clearly states that the Supreme Court may reexamine, modify, and uphold the Final decision of the highest court of a state if a question arises as to the Constitutional validity of a treaty or provision of the United States. Without This provision, each state would have been able to veto any statutes and treaties of the Federal Union constitution.
On February 2, 1790, the first session of the Supreme Court was held in New York. John Jay of New York was elected Chief Justice of the Supreme Court at George Washington’s will. In this context, the Supreme Court became one of the most important departments of the federal government.
Constitution of the Senate:
After George Washington came to power, he tried to improve relations between the 13 colonies and establish a proper administrative system. He recommended a bicameral legislature – the upper house would be the Senate and the lower house would be the House of Representatives. Under Washington’s system of government, the first Senate was composed of 22 members.
Although the Constitution of federal rule in America gave the President the power to enter into any treaty with the advice and consent of the Senate, the presence of 2/3 of the members was essential. After taking charge of their respective posts, the new officers undertake to discharge their duties with utmost care and vigilance.
Various legislations:
During his reign, George Washington enacted several constitutional laws to maintain a sound administrative and economic system. Among these are the Judiciary Act of 1789, the Indian Intercourse Act, introduced in 1790, the Naturalization Act of 1790, Resident Act. 1790, Bank Act 1791, Coinage or Mint Act 1792, Fugitive Slave Act 1793, Naval Act 1794.
What was Alexander Hamilton’s position in George Washington’s cabinet?
Alexander Hamilton was an important economic secretary in George Washington’s government. He soon became proficient in the Treasury in Washington. Alexander Hamilton was born in 1757 in the West Indies. Later he came to New York in search of livelihood.
Even before graduating from King’s College, he became vocal about the rights of the people of the colonies. At the age of twenty-two, he joined George Washington’s Army. After the establishment of peace in the country, he joined the legal profession in New York and in a short time became well-versed in law.
James Madison and Alexander Hamilton played major roles in the Annapolis Conference. His role in the Federal Convention was unique. In 1789, he was appointed America’s first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton believed that government and private interests could only be made benevolent and stable through a close relationship between government and private interests.
They must be formed into a royal class by maintaining policies favorable to the interests of wealthy families, merchants, shipowners, moneylenders, and moneylenders. Hamilton primarily sought to strengthen the federal government by permanently protecting the interests of the wealthy. Following are the policies adopted by Hamilton in the field of economics:
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Preparation of Public Credit Report:
Hamilton’s economic program was described in several reports presented to Congress between 1790 and 1791. The first of these programs was the Public Credit Report. In this report, he recommended that the federal government take responsibility for the payment of loans received from France and Holland during the American War of Independence, the national debt of the Confederacy, and the debts received by the states under the control of the United States.
According to Hamilton, the federal government would be able to raise a large sum of money through new taxation, and with that money would be able to repay the interest on the national debt and the principal amount within a few years.
He believed this policy would put the federal government on a firmer footing and restore donor confidence in paying the national debt. When Thomas Jefferson presented a speech against Hamilton’s policy, Hamilton argued that the system’s benefits outweighed the harms and that the country would benefit from it.
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Taxation to raise revenue:
To enrich the US revenue, Hamilton recommended a tax on whiskey. However, he did not only mention this law to collect additional taxes, but one of its objectives was to establish the authority of the federal government over the member states.
Moreover, instead of making the economy solely dependent on agricultural products, he adopted this policy to increase public inclination towards industry and commerce. The new tariff policy, excluding import and export duties, faced widespread criticism in Congress.
Soon after Congress adopted this policy, unrest broke out in western Pennsylvania. When taxation began in 1794, the Scotch Irish began an attempt to disobey federal law, known as the Whiskey Rebellion. In this situation, at the request of Hamilton, Washington sent troops to the lawless areas. The rebellion was suppressed and the tax was collected by re-establishing peace.
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Establishment of Bank:
One of Hamilton’s important recommendations for reforming the economic system was the establishment of banks. Like his other policies, the plan to establish this bank was modeled after the British. Banks are established mainly for two reasons keeping government deposits and helping in borrowing.
Moreover, it is declared the responsibility of the bank to create paper notes, maintain stability in the monetary system, provide financial assistance to those who are engaged in the expansion of industry and commerce, and take various measures for economic development. Arrangements are made to raise one-fifth of the bank’s capital from the government and the remaining four-fifths from the public.
As a result, the policy of entrusting the actual responsibility of bank management to the public was adopted. Despite Jefferson’s ambivalence, the banking system was established in America through a twenty-year charter granted by Congress in 1791. Jefferson argued against the banking system, arguing that the federal government, under the terms of the Constitution, would “engage itself in limited constructive activities.”
Against the argument, however, was Hamilton, that the right to establish banks was implicitly granted within the limited constructive functions provided by the Constitution. By August 1791, the United States issued its bonds to London and Amsterdam at 6% above par.
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Mint establishment:
The mint is one of the important infrastructures required to run the economic activities of an independent state. American Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton established the mint as one of his economic reforms.
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Assistance to Industries:
In the last recommendation of his Public Credit Report, Hamilton promised to aid the country’s industrial and commercial establishments. Criticizing Adam Smith’s policy of ‘Lassez Faire’ or non-interference by the state, he said the government should adopt a policy of conservation when new industries are developed in the country.
There were two powerful economic groups within the Congress industrial and commercial owners in the north and large farm owners in the south. In 1789, according to the Statutory Navigation Act, American industrialists got special privileges. Again, the adoption of the conservation tariff policy also protected the interests of the landowners in the southern region.
Also, Hamilton wanted the government to provide security for new industries to encourage artisans to come to the United States. Arrangements will be made to manufacture machinery and equipment and women and child labor will be employed. Here too he aimed to create a party interest capable of influencing the government of the new republic.
Jefferson expressed his opposition to this policy and said that although industrialists would benefit from it, the common people would be forced to buy inferior goods at higher prices. So he appealed to Congress to pursue a free trade policy partially if not completely. But here also due to the intervention of George Washington, Hamilton’s policy was accepted in Congress.
In the economic field, Hamilton’s reforms were able to enrich American agriculture, industry, and commerce. However, according to Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, Hamilton’s economic benefits through his policies. Under the control of Congress, he resorted to corruption to put the money of the poor into the pockets of the rich.
Jefferson’s suspicions were intensified by the speculative system that began in 1790 with the announcement of Hamilton’s reform proposals in banked money, land, and government funds. However, Jefferson did not take any action against it.
On the other hand, the new political party was born out of the disagreements that arose in Congress over Hamilton’s financial reform policies. Hamilton’s supporters were divided into Federalists and opponents into Republican factions. Political parties in America started from here.
In 1797, Washington refused everyone’s request and resigned from the presidency. Then he died on 14 December 1799. Through his efforts, the United States of America was not only recognized as an independent and independent state but the economic and foreign policy of this new state was also established on a solid foundation.
Following the policies adopted by Washington, Hamilton, and Adams, successive governments gradually made the United States a great power. So George Washington was awarded the title of ‘Father of his country’.
As America’s first president, the way George Washington conducted his administration was very important to the nation. It is clear from the comments of US Congressman Henry Lighthouse Harry Lee about Washington.
Foreign Policy of the Federal Government
After America’s first elected federal government took office in 1789, the need for a sound and robust foreign policy arose. Meanwhile, the federal government had to face a difficult situation in maintaining friendly relations with France and Britain.
However, the neutrality of George Washington and the compromise of John Adams were able to protect the newly independent country from foreign wars. The main thrust of the federal government’s foreign policy was compromise treaties with France, Britain, and Spain.
This foreign policy adopted by the Federalists was very important in establishing the foundation of the nascent American Republic on a firm foundation. Also, realism and stability were the hallmarks of the federal government’s foreign policy. Following the foreign policy of the Federalists, subsequent American governments conducted their foreign policy. Below is a discussion of the major aspects of US foreign policy during the Federalist period:
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Adoption of neutral policy in the French Revolution:
The French Revolution brought about an ideological change in the political landscape of France and the world. The revolution in France in 1789 greatly shook the political system of Europe. A new war started in Europe centered on the French Revolution.
England formed the first power alliance with Austria, Prussia, Spain, and Russia against France and went to war. At this time, complications arose in the foreign relations of the United States with the two warring countries, and sharp differences of opinion arose among the American people on the question of the French Revolution.
Figuring out a way to keep out of the war between France and Britain became a pressing problem for the new Republic of America. Meanwhile, in 1778, the United States signed a treaty with France regarding aid given during the American War of Independence; It stated that the United States would assist, if necessary, in the defense of the French colonies in the West Indies.
According to this condition, if America supports France, its war with Britain and Spain becomes inevitable. At this time, America’s foreign trade with Britain and Spain was the largest. In this situation, the question of support and cooperation to the two warring countries of Europe arose in the cabinet of Washington.
Hamilton supported Britain in favor of trade, industry, and economic development. He argued that since the other party to the treaty, the king was no longer alive, the United States was no longer bound to abide by it.
Thomas Jefferson also had no intention of getting involved in the war, but he believed that the French Revolution would result in the development of liberty, equality, and fraternity, so he did not want to engage in any activity that would oppose it or harm the interests of France.
Finally, as a result of discussions in many Cabinet meetings, the President issued the Declaration of Impartiality. Through this declaration, the whole world was told that the United States would stay away from this commotion.
At this time, France sent a minister named Citizen Edmond Charles Jeanne as an ambassador to America to gain support and cooperation from America. Before Jane arrived in America, Washington issued a policy of neutrality.
Still knowing that he negotiated with Washington to get America’s cooperation. But he said America will not be involved in any war. When Edmund Jane realized that he would receive no military aid, he offered financial aid. But America did not accept it and declared him uninvited.
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Signing an agreement to improve relations with England:
In 1789, Britain and France began to attack each other in Europe around the French Revolution. Great Britain blockaded other French colonies, including the West Indies. They also seized American ships carrying French goods and kidnapped sailors from American ships.
Moreover, British troops attempted to create political chaos by occupying the American South and aiding the Red Indians in the Northwest. Given these events, the neutral policy of America is threatened. In this situation, several members of Congress proposed punitive measures against British merchant ships engaged in American trade and confiscation of British property in the United States.
However, the Federalists feared that adopting such a policy would lead to war with Great Britain and would bring disaster both economically and militarily. Because the American profits from maritime trade were lucrative despite the financial loss that the British were taking from American ships.
To change this relationship with Britain, George Washington nominated Chief Justice John Jay as special envoy to Great Britain on April 16, 1794. John Jay was able to negotiate a compromise with British officials in London and signed the historic Treaty of Jay on November 19, 1794. The clauses of this treaty were:
- By 1796, Britain had withdrawn military bases from the American Northwest.
- Allowing American ships to trade with the British West Indian Islands.
- To arrange repayment of the debt owed by Britain to America before the War of Independence.
- Britain paid compensation for captured ships
- Ensuring America’s territorial integrity.
- Determining the border between America and British-ruled Canada.
- A commission of inquiry was formed between the two countries to make up for the loss that Britain caused to American trade.
- A commercial agreement was signed between the two countries for the next 12 years.
The signing of a commercial agreement between the two countries for the next 12 years. When the terms of the treaty were announced at the Philadelphia Conference in March 1795, various regions of America, especially the West, strongly protested, and the Republican Party referred to the treaty as the surrender of the American government to the British.
The treaty caused great discontent among the Americans, but on the advice of George Washington, Congress approved it to avoid war. According to J’s agreement, America owes Britain 600,000 pounds in pre-war debt and Britain Pays America £1317,000 for American warships and war reparations. This compensation was paid on 2 October 1796.
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The signing of the peace treaty with Spain:
Spain’s American relations became closer given J’s treaty with Britain. After signing the treaty with Britain, Spain became concerned about the security of its colonies in the region. Given this, a treaty was signed between America and Spain on October 27, 1796.
The agreement was signed through negotiations between the Spanish side and the American representative, Thomas Pickney. This agreement is known as the Treaty of Sant Lorange. The clauses of the agreement are as follows:
- The Spanish government demarcates the border between the United States and Spanish territory along the 31st parallel in Florida.
- American traders were given the right to trade in the Mississippi Basin.
- US citizens are allowed to warehouse any goods for trade at the Port of New Orleans duty-free.
This solved several problems on the nation’s northwest and Southwest frontiers, allowing trade rights to the Mississippi River to ensure America’s westward expansion. In addition to accepting the responsibility of restraining the Red Indians in the border areas of the United States, Spain agreed to determine the boundaries as claimed by the United States.
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Efforts to improve relations with France:
France did not take it lightly, despite the American alliance with Spain in the wake of the Treaty of Jay. Because France considers it a violation of the Franco-American Treaty of Friendship signed during the American War of Independence. So France continued to interfere in America’s foreign trade given the J’s treaty concluded by America with Britain.
At that time, Piuconi, who believed in the Federalist ideals, was asked to send him to France and sign a peace agreement with France. However, the French authorities refused to sign a treaty with America. Not only that, the French government ordered their ambassador to America to return home.
This resulted in a deep diplomatic crisis engulfing the fledgling state. However, George Washington decided to protect America from any kind of war without engaging in any kind of conflict with France. Given his adopted policy, America did not maintain friendly relations with France at this time.
Parle, however, was able to avoid an imminent war between the two countries. Washington’s foreign policy was characterized by realism and neutrality. With this goal in mind, he succeeded in avoiding any conflict or conflict in foreign relations – Washington’s greatest achievement in foreign policy.
Foreign Policy of John Adams (1797-1801)
After George Washington, the Federalist candidate John Adams won the American presidential election in 1796. As the Federalists regained power in the American system of government, the French became angrier and began increasingly attacking American merchant ships.
In addition, France planned to encircle the United States by creating French territory around the Americas, and by occupying Canada and forcing Spain to cede Florida and Louisiana to France, pushing back the US border to the Appalachian Mountains.
Under these circumstances, the Federalists favored military action against France. But Adams adopted a policy of peace instead of war. In 1797, Adams sent a diplomatic mission to France consisting of C.C. Puccini, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gaby to improve relations with France.
But no importance was given to them by the government. Finally, French Minister Talley privately sent three unknown delegates to the American mission. Those known as X, Y, and Z. Three representatives named X, Y, and Z negotiate with the American mission and demand a hefty bribe as a condition of an honorable treaty.
When this event was published in America, there was anger among the Americans against France and there was a demand in Congress to take military action against France. As a result, Congress appropriated large sums of money to strengthen the military, including the Navy. Warships were also well-equipped. However, John Adams did not cancel the peace plan.
At this time the ‘American’ government came to know that France was interested in establishing peace. As a result, President John Adams sent three delegates to France. Given which a peace treaty was signed between the two parties in 1800. According to the terms of the contract:
- The old treaty of alliance between France and America was annulled
- As a neutral nation, America’s right to trade was accepted.
- France withdraws claims for naval war reparations.
- America withdraws the claim that the French caused American losses in trade.
Although the treaty was not to the liking of the Federalists, they accepted it with certain conditions. However, when the Republicans won the election of 1801, the treaty was unanimously approved in the Senate.
A review of the policies followed by George Washington and later President John Adams shows that both pursued their foreign policies through profound diplomacy. US foreign policy during the Federalist period was one of honesty, pacifism, and avoidance of war as much as possible—allowing the fledgling republic to avoid war with the two European superpowers, Britain and France.
This pacifist policy put an end to foreign power and America gained a peaceful position. Finally, the foreign policy adopted by the Federalists during their rule demanded a sound policy. This policy undoubtedly strengthens America’s future prosperity, political stability, and neutrality. As a result of such policies, the reconstruction of America is possible and soon America gets the opportunity to emerge as a world power.
After the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, America gained independence through the first Treaty of Versailles in 1783. Soon after the Declaration of Independence, America formed a confederation of 13 colonies and in 1781, the states began their administrative process by ratifying the Articles of Confederation.
However, the Articles of Confederation failed to provide unity among the states and regulate foreign relations. As a result, a conference was convened in Philadelphia in 1787 to amend the Articles of Confederation. But instead of reforming the Constitution, the leaders drafted a new Constitution for America.
A new American Constitution was enacted in 1789 based on many complaints and compromises. According to this constitution, in April 1789, the old Congress arranged for the election of the President through the Electoral College.
George Washington of Virginia was elected the first president of America and John Adams of Massachusetts was elected vice president. The rule of these two people from 1789 to 1801 is called ‘Federal rule’ or ‘Federalist era’.